Formaldehyde: The concern in our occupational environment

The use of formaldehyde has been commonplace in a variety of different occupational settings. Our environment includes all things in our environment including the workplace. The use of formaldehyde (CH₂O) is of much concern to myself and those working in certain occupations. The most frequent users of this chemical are the manufacturing, funeral service, and healthcare industries. There has been shown to be a significant relationship between the use of formaldehyde and negative health outcomes among exposed employees (Raja & Saltana, 2012). Depending on the job title, individuals are at higher risk when exposed at higher frequencies and longer durations. In the funeral service industry duration of embalming practice and related formaldehyde exposures were associated with statistically significantly increased risk for mortality from myeloid leukemia (Hauptmann 2009). Mortality from myeloid leukemia increased statistically significantly with increasing number of years of embalming and with increasing peak formaldehyde exposure. These findings were cause of much concern in the scientific community supplemented by other research showing the relationship between formaldehyde exposure and disease. Further research was also done on these outcomes linking the occupational risk of exposure to formaldehyde in the manufacturing industry. Ultimately President Obama signed the Formaldehyde Standards for Composite-Wood Products Act into law in 2010, which set guidelines to protect the employees of this industry (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014). Much is still to be understood regarding the harm of exposure. The exposure to this chemical is also variable depending on an individual’s specific job title within a specific industry. It is important to understand the occupational risks associated with chemical exposure so that informed decisions can be made with respect to risk. The research regarding the dangers caused by formaldehyde exposure has been more prominently focused on the short-term risks (Mandel, Trichopoulous, Adami & Cole, 2010). Being exposed to formaldehyde levels of .1 ppm in the air can cause watery eyes, burning sensation in the eyes, nose, and throat; coughing; wheezing; nausea; and skin irritation. Some people are very sensitive to formaldehyde, whereas others have no reaction to the same level of exposure (National Cancer Institute 2011). Less research has been done in regards to the long-term risks of exposure to this chemical compared to the short-term risks. Embalmers use formaldehyde at a higher frequency in their occupational setting compared to other job titles, which makes them a high-risk population (Steinmaus et al., 2010). This exposure threat in the occupational environment if the most important to me because I have family members who work in the funeral service industry. It is important to be knowledgeable about this chemical because it contaminates our occupational environment making us at risk for negative health outcomes.

 

Formaldehyde Emissions from Composite Wood Products. (2014, May 9). EPA. Retrieved  August 2, 2014, from http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/chemtest/formaldehyde/

Formaldehyde and Cancer Risk. (2011, June 10). National Cancer Institute.

            Retrieved August 2, 2014, from

            http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/formaldehyde

Freeman, L., Blair, A., Lubin, J., Stewart, P., Hayes, R., Hoover, R., et al. Mortality From             Lymphohematopoietic Malignancies Among Workers in Formaldehyde Industries: The National Cancer Institute Cohort. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 101, 751-761. Retrieved , from http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/101/10/751.full

Hauptmann, M., Stewart, P., Hayes, R., Lubin, J., Freeman, L., Hornung, R., et al. Mortality from lymphohematopoietic malignancies and brain cancer among embalmers exposed to formaldehyde. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 24, 1696-1708. Retrieved December 16, 2009, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2794303/

Mandel, J., Trichopoulous, D., Adami, H., & Cole, P. Formaldehyde and lymphohematopoietic cancers: A review of two recent studies. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 58, 161-166. Retrieved August 2, 2014, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20736040

Raja, D., & Saltana, B. Potential health hazards for students exposed to formaldehyde in the gross anatomy laboratory. PubMed, 74, 36-40. Retrieved August 2, 2014, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22329207

Steinmaus, C., Smith, A., Smith, M., Zhang, L., & Schwilk, E. Formaldehyde and Leukemia: An Updated Meta-Analysis and Evaluation of Bias. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 52, 878-886. Retrieved August 2, 2014, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20798648

Ebola Virus

The virus that I find most interesting is Ebola. My interest certainly stems from the overwhelming media attention it has gotten recently and its threat to the health of the public. We typically view viruses such as Ebola or even small pox as having been eradicated though previous public health efforts, however this virus is quite a current threat. The virus has fatality rates in upwards of 90% in infected individuals. It can be spread though animals such as the fruit bat and then from human to human. The virus is not spread through the air, however it can be transmitted though bodily fluids which makes it highly transmittable. The symptoms include fever, weakness, muscle pain, headache, sore throat, vomiting, diarrhea, rash, and impaired kidney and live function. The incubation period for the virus can be up to 21 days so quarantining is often a necessary precaution.

Prevalence:  The World Health Organization, in partnership with the Ministries of Health in Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Nigeria announced a cumulative total of 1603 suspect and confirmed cases of Ebola virus disease (EVD) and 887 deaths, as of August 1, 2014. Of the 1603 clinical cases, 1009 cases have been laboratory confirmed for Ebola virus infection.

Life cycle:

Although there is no successfully confirmed treatment, the virus can be prevented through precautionary measures. By reducing wildlife-to-human and human-to-human contact, the virus has a difficult time being transmitted. It should also be known that proper handling and disposal of Ebola infected bodies is crucial in reducing transmission. Healthcare professionals must fully protect themselves when treating infected individuals. The eradication effort is still being deliberated on globally.

 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/ 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4YYskFkqoyI

Guinea Worm Parasite

The parasite that I find most interesting is the guinea worm. This is because although there is no medication or vaccine, it can be easily prevented by the use of a fabric strainer to filter infected drinking water.

Prevelance:  The point prevelance for 2008 was 4,647   

The initial infection results from drinking contaminated drinking water that contain small crustaceans that are infected with the D. medinensis larvae.

1.     After the consuming these crustaceans called copepods they die release the parasitic larvae which penetrates the stomach and intestinal wall of the host entering the abdominal cavity and retroperitoneal space.

2.     Once the larvae matures into adults the male worms die and the females move through the body to subcutaneous tissue near the surface of the skin.

3.     After approximately 1 year inside of the host the female worm creates a blister on the skin where it emerges exposing itself. The worm typically emerges on the lower legs. Often the host seeks water for relief from the discomfort which give the worm an opportunity to releases it larvae.

4.     The larvae is the consumed by copepods

5.     After two molts the parasite develops into infected larvae

6.     Ingestion of the copepod ends and begins the cycle

   

The eradication programs for guinea worm disease primarily involve strategies for prevention. Many of these programs facilitate sources for safe drinking water as well as the filtration devices to filter water before consumption. Something as simple as a piece of fine cloth to strain drinking water can be an effective strategy in preventing the consumption of this parasites. The use of larvicides such as temephos have been used to treat infected ponds. Efforts by the WHO ultimately established the International Commission for the Certification of Dracunculiasis Eradication in 1995 which provides a system to certify countries as being guinea-worm disease free. Once a host is infected with the parasite it will ultimately grow until forming a blister mostly on the lower leg, where the worm will emerge from the tissue. At this time the worm can be manually extracted.

http://www.cartercenter.org/health/guinea_worm/index.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8FYgQFSrZDE

Rachel Carson responsible for the deaths of millions of African children

Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring has had a global impact on the public’s view of environmental health. The book exposed the world to the details of how pesticides negatively impact the environment. Her efforts ultimately led to the ban of the pesticide DDT here in the U.S. as well as in many countries worldwide. Although we scientifically know that the reduction in DDT use is related to improved health outcomes, we still see much opposition of its ban globally. Some of the harshest claims that have been made regarding the ban of DDT are that it has killed millions of individuals in Africa. This is because DDT was thought to be the most effective pesticide for killing malaria harboring mosquitoes, and the ban of DDT led to an increase in the mosquito population as well as the cases of malaria. Many harsh critics blame Rachel Carson and her environmental movement for this spike in mosquitoes in Africa.  People claim that her book led to the ban of DDT which in turn allowed for the mosquito population to increase dramatically. These same people believe that DDT was the cure for the problem and she encouraged taking it away. These critics are failing to address the reality of pesticide resistance in mosquito populations. Mosquitoes are rapidly evolving, not just behaviorally to avoid DDT and other pesticides, but also genetically to resists it affects. This reality shows us that the ban of DDT is not the reason for the increase in mosquitoes; it is that they are becoming resistant to chemical pesticides in general. Malaria has killed millions of individuals over time and it is important to devise a strategy for reduction that does not suffer from the same resistance mechanisms that chemical pesticides have. Her book led to a global change in the use of DDT as a pesticide and has since improved health outcomes. It is important for us to understand the reasoning in such horrible claims by her opponents so that we can understand its lack of credibility. The key defense against her opponents is the reality of pesticide resistance, and the more we learn about this reality, the better we can justify radical changes in public health policy.

Rachel Carson

Rachel Carson was both an aquatic biologist as well as an environmental conservationist. She opened the public eye to the negative environmental health outcomes resulting from the use of chemical pesticides. She started a revolution regarding environmental health that was met with much opposition by the chemical companies that benefitted from its use. This ultimately led to the ban of the toxic pesticide DDT and others. Her efforts sparked a fire in many other environmentalist of that era which ultimately led to the creation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Earlier in her career she wrote a book called Under the Sea-Wind which contributed to the scientific literature of marine biology and oceanography. This was followed by her books The Sea Around Us and The Edge of the Sea which expanded her contribution to science being known as a leading science writer in the United States at that time.  

PCB Fact Sheet

Blog #2

Choropleth Map

This type of map is valuable because it gives a visual representation of a measurement and its variability across a geographic region. For example this map give a visual representation of acres of land harvested for hay and grass and the variability in the density of acres harvested. These types of maps are excellent in representing the distribution and severity of the variable you are targeting. If this showed the distribution of type 2 diabetes cases for example it could aid public health professionals in targeting at risk communities where the cases are most densely present. It will often show this variability in color shading across different regions.

Isarythmic Map

This type of map is valuable because it shows continuous variables such as precipitation or temperature in a smooth visual representation. This shows the flow of these different variables across the target landscape which can help in seeing large changes in patterns. If a emergency preparedness professional wanted to know the flooding risk in an area they might use this type of map to help justify focusing resources on specific regions.

Dot Density Map

This type of map is valuable because it helps show the locations of a target variable. It can show where the target variable is most densely present. A person might use this map and look for associations between these locations and lung cancer, or these locations and the frequency of diseases caused by exposure to toxic pesticides. 

Proportional Symbol Map

 This type of map is valuable because it shows the relative proportion of a variable across a geographic area. For example this map shows coal consumption and the size of the circles are directly proportionate to the level of consumption in each location across the targeted geographic landscape. This shows public health and environmental health professionals where consumption is the greatest, which can give them target locations to measure the negative impact of the coal industry on health outcomes. This could also aid environmental health scientists to justify stricter legislature for particulate matter and ozone in these areas to improve health outcomes.

Environmental Sensitivity Index Map

The value of an environmental sensitivity index map is that it provides information regarding the location of human and biological resources. It also provides a visual representation of the shoreline sensitivity and the resources that could be at risk during an environmental accident. These types of maps are valuable tool for emergency responders during an oil spill for example. The map could aid in the planning phase prior to the occurrence of a natural or man-made disaster to outline cleanup strategies and prioritize areas of focus.

Trip to the garden